PENGKAJIAN STRATEGIS, METODOLOGI PENELITIAN ILMIAH SERTA PEMANFAATANNYA DALAM PENGKAJIAN STRATEGIS

Oleh Dr. A.Yani Antariksa., SE, SH, MM.



1. Umum


a. Pemerintah Indonesia melalui Departemen Pendidikan Nasional telah menggalakkan berbagai penelitian ilmiah guna mengembangkan ilmu pengetahuan di Indonesia untuk mengantisipasi tuntutan era informasi dan globalisasi. Pemerintah telah melakukan langkah-langkah yang efektif untuk meningkatkan program kegiatan ilmiah dan penelitian serta karya-karya ilmiah dari lembaga-lembaga pendidikan dan penelitian di Indonesia dan menampilkannya dalam skala yang lebih luas, baik ditingkat nasional maupun internasional. Pada kenyataannya pengembangan program kegiatan ilmiah dan penelitian umumnya belum dilakukan secara sistematis untuk menghasilkan keluaran yang bermakna, baik dalam mendorong perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan atau dalam membantu pemecahan masalah dalam lingkungannya. Berdasarkan data dari Scientific American bulan Agustus 1995 menunjukkan bahwa sumbangan karya ilmiah internasional dari Indonesia hanyalah 0.012% (setingkat dengan Nepal, Myanmar dan Bangladesh) dan hal ini merupakan jumlah yang sangat kecil jika dibandingkan dengan jumlah penduduk yang besar dan banyaknya lembaga pendidikan dan penelitian di Indonesia baik pemerintah maupun swasta. Bahkan Sampai sekarangpun masih tergolong kecil. Karya ilmiah yang dihasilkan merupakan salah satu tolok ukur produktivitas suatu lembaga pendidikan dan penelitian atau pengkajian sehingga upaya meningkatkan produknya merupakan suatu tujuan yang sangat penting untuk mempertahankan eksistensi lembaga tersebut. Dalam situasi yang semakin kompetitif dan cenderung bersaing secara terbuka kiranya diperlukan pola pikir dan bertindak yang baru bagi penentu kebijakan di setiap lembaga pendidikan dan penelitian ilmiah atau pengkajian termasuk pengkajian strategis.



b. Dalam kehidupan akademis modern sekarang ini, suatu lembaga pendidikan TNI, seperti Sesko TNI, Seskoad, Seskoal, Seskoau, Pusjianstra TNI tidak dapat menghindarkan diri dari keharusan untuk membina kegiatan ilmiah dan penelitian yang berkaitan dengan tugasnya yaitu pengkajian strategis bidang hankam sesuai dengan matra darat, Laut dan Udara. Lembaga-lembaga dimaksud sebagai dapur pengkajian dan pengamat perkembangan lingkungan strategik dan dinamika masyarakat harus dapat secara konsisten menyumbangkan kajian-kajian strategik ilmiahnya terhadap pembangunan nasional, baik pada tingkat strategi, operasi, logistik dan manajemen sumber daya. Demikian pula Pusjianstra TNI sebagai lembaga pengkajian strategis harus dapat secara konsisten menyumbangkan kajian-kajian strategik ilmiahnya bagi pembangunan Nasional, khususnya TNI pada tingkat strategis, operasi (OMP dan OMSP), Logistik dan Manajemen Sumberdaya, Renyuda dan Dokopslat. Salah satu sasaran umumyang ingin dicapai oleh lembaga-lembaga pengkajian strategik Angkatan Bersenjata adalah menghasilkan pemikir strategis yang berpendidikan/pandangan luas yang memiliki kehalihan secara mendalam dalam hal sumber daya komponen keamanan nasional. Secara umum diketahui bahwa hampir semua pemikir strategis berpendidikan pengetahuan yang luas, tidak dilatih secara sempit dangkal. Dasar pendidikan/pengetahuan yang luas dapat berkembang dan menghasilkan pengembangan yang lebih jauh sebagai salah satu pandangan dengan mengembangkan keahlian intelektual seperti yang diperlukan dalam investigasi formal untuk kebutuhan jangka panjang.



c. Penguasaan metodelogi penelitian merupakan hal yang sangat penting sebagai dasar melakukan penelitian dan pengkajian yang bersifat ilmiah. Metodologi penelitian membahas konsep teoritik berbagai metoda yang dapat digunakan dalam penelitian. Dalam melakukan berbagai jenis penelitian, maka para pengkaji kajian strategis harus mengetahui landasan filsafat ilmu yang akan digunakan sehingga dalam melakukan proses berfikirnya dapat digunakan logika yang tepat dan sesuai dengan permasalahan yang akan diteliti/dikaji. Penelitian atau pengkajian masalah-masalah strategik memerlukan metodologi penelitian yang tepat disesuaikan dengan permasalahan yang dibahas. Umumnya banyak digunakan penelitian kualitatif mengingat datanya banyak dalam bentuk tekstual, tetapi berdasarkan perkembangan metoda dan teknologi sekarang ini tidak tertutup kemungkinan juga menggunakan teknik-teknik kuantitatif atau kombinasi keduanya. Dalam makalah ini akan diuraikan metodologi penelitian secara umum yang meliputi filsafat ilmu, pengkajian strategis, metoda dan prosedur penelitian serta penerapannya dalam pengkajian strategis.



METODOLOGI PENELITIAN


2. Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Penelitian


a. lmu dan kebenaran

Ilmu pengetahuan lahir karena manusia diberkahi Tuhan perasaan atau sifat ingin tahu. Keingintahuan seseorang terhadap permasalahan disekelilingnya dapat mengarah pada keingintahuan ilmiah yang bertujuan untuk mencari kebenaran ilmiah berdasarkan pengamatan yang dilakukan secara teratur dan sistematis. Dengan adanya keingintahuan manusia yang terus menerus, maka ilmu akan terus berkembang dan membantu kemampuan persepsi serta kemampuan berfikir secara logis yang disebut sebagai penalaran.

Dengan melalui proses pengamatan (observasi) dan penalaran (reasoning) ilmiah maka akan didapatkan kebenaran ilmiah yang harus memenuhi tiga kriteria, yaitu :



1) Kriteria koherensi, yaitu bahwa suatu pernyataan kebenaran harus koheren/konsisten dengan pernyataan sebelumnya yang dianggap benar.



2) Kriteria koresponden, yaitu bahwa suatu pernyataan kebenaran mempunyai kaitan dengan obyek yang dituju dan sesuai dengan fakta.



3) Kriteria pragmatis, yaitu bahwa kebenaran yang didapat, dapat diaplikasikan secara efektif pada hal – hal yang sifatnya praktis-pragmatis.



Untuk mendapatkan kebenaran ilmiah tersebut dilakukan proses berfikir dan penalaran secara induktif adalah cara berfikir yang berpangkal dari hal-hal yang bersifat khusus/lingkup sempit untuk mendapatkan kesimpulan yang bersifat umum/lingkup luas, sedangkan pendekatan deduktif adalah cara berfikir yang berpangkal dari hal yang bersifat umum untuk mendapatkan kesimpulan yang bersifat khusus. Kedua pendekatan tersebut mewakili dua kelompok ilmu atau cara berilmu. Kelompok pertama adalah ilmnu yang bersifat apriori yang berdasarkan pada cara deduktif yang menjadi dasar cara berfikir ilmu-ilmu eksakta. Cara berfikir kelompok ini disebut silogisme yang dimotori oleh Plato.



Kelompok ilmu kedua adalah ilmu empirik atau aposteriori dimana proses menghasilkan suatu ilmu didapat melalui proses pengamatan dan penelitian. Kelompok pemikiran ini dirintis oleh Aristoteles yang bekerja berdasarkan cara induktif yang umumnya dilakukan oleh ilmu-ilmu sosial. Aristoteles ini adalah muridnya Plato.

b. Penelitian

Terminologi penelitian mempunyai banyak arti tergantung dari konteknya. Pada umumnya dilakukan saat penulisan skripsi untuk sarjana strata satu, thesis untuk sarjana strata dua/master dan disertasi untuk sarjana strata tiga/doktor. Mungkin dalam pekerjaan memerlukan penelitian secara teknis, sedangkan yang lainnya terlibat dalam penelitian ilmiah. Penelitian ini diperlukan karena :

Pertama, untuk menambah pengetahuan, setidak-tidaknya akan memberikan perhatian. Seperti kata Sankara, seorang ahli Theology Hindu: "Wisdom is not acquired save as the result of investigation." There is a wealth of information out there -- infinitely more than at any time in the past. Namun demikian sejumlah informasi relative diperlukan, mungkin akan kurang pengetahuannya sekarang ini. Sebenarnya sekarang ini kebanyakan pendapat pada setiap topic yang memungkinkan. Pendapat, bagaimanapun juga bukan pengetahuan dan berisi apa yang kita inginkan atau seharusnya yang kita inginkan adalah pengetahuan. Inilah yang dikerjakan penelitian menolong kita untuk mendapatkannya.

Kedua, proses penelitian adalah jendela proses yang beralasan. Ini adalah permulaan untuk menyampaikan pendapat, sikap atau kepercayaan, ini adalah bagaimana mengungkapkan agar yang lain dapat mengerti pandangan kita, nbaik dengan cara meledak-ledak atau dalam pikiran. Pada tingkatan ini pengkajian strategi dalam kemiliteran harus dapat meyakinkan, pengalaman akan meberikan apa yang ada dalam pikiran, yang terdengar kebenarannya. Pandangan yang kita anggap benar, dalam proses penyampaian mungkin akan membutakan kita, dengan menolak pandangan yang valid dan legitimid. Penelitian merupakan jalan yang akan memberikan pengetahuan sesuai yang di kerjakan, dan menambah cakrawala pandang seperti keyakinan memegang grip.
Ketiga, pengetahuan memerlukan untuk membuat pertanyaan yang bagus sebagaimana mencari jawabannya yang benar. Disini dipelajari bagaimana mencari pembuktian dan bagaimana menimbangnya.

Kita akan belajar apa yang valid dan apa yang tidak. Sebagai tambahan kita akan belajar apa yang kurang atau salah melalui alas an tertentu. Dengan demikian kita akan melengkapi diri kita dengan wawasan yang lebih dalam mengambil keputusan.

Penelitian adalah segala daya upaya yang bertujuan untuk menemukan sesuatu yang baru, mencari jalan pemecahan masalah maupun mencari penjelasan – penjelasan tentang suatu fenomena dengan menggunakan metoda ilmiah. Disamping itu penelitian juga merupakan suatu metoda untuk menemukan kebenaran sehingga penelitian merupakan metoda berfikir secara kritis. Penelitian meliputi proses pemberian definisi dan redefinisi terhadap suatu masalah, memformulasikan hypotesa, membuat kesimpulan dan mengandalkan pengujian atas semua kesimpulan untuk menentukan apakah cocok atau tidak dengan hypotesa yang diberikan. Melalui suatu penelitian manusia dapat melakukan upaya memperbaiki kinerja suatu system, meningkatkan efisiensi,dan efektifitas, memperpanjang usia pakai dan menghasilkan suatu produk baru baik berupa produk aplikatif ataupun teori/ ilmu baru yang pada akhirnya adalah bermuara pada upaya untuk meningkatkan taraf kehidupan manusia agar menjadi lebih baik.

3. Unsur – unsur teori dan Penelitian Ilmiah

Alur pikir suatu konsep ilmiah diawali oleh adanya fakta yang diterima oleh panca indra yang disebut sebagai konsep awal. Konsep awal ini diabstraksikan dengan nama lambang yang disebut sebagai konsep sederhana. Nama dan lambang yang dipersepsikan sama dan dijelaskan secara khusus disebut definisi. Fakta yang ditemukan dalam suatu pengamatan dan mempunyai korelasi dengan fakta yang lain disebut sebagai faktor. Hubungan antara faktor-faktor tersebut yang dapat dinilai benar atau salah disebut sebagai proposisi. Proposisi-proposisi ini umumnya tidak melalui proses pembuktian, dan yang digunakan adalah proposisi yang terakhir yang membenarkan proposisi sebelumnya.

Proposisi yang tidak perlu diuji kebenarannya disebut sebagai asumsi dasar atau postulat sedangkan yang perlu diuji kebenarannya secara empiric adalah hypotesis. Hubungan proposisi secara khusus atau suatu konsep yang terkait secara sistematis dengan definisi dan proposisi sehingga dapat menjelaskan suatu gejala disesbut sebagai teori. Teori yang telah diuji dan bertahan dalam tenggang waktu yang lama disebut sebagai hukum atau dalil. Teori dan fakta saling berhubungan, teori dapat mengungkapkan fakta-fakta baru, sebaliknya, fakta dapat melahirkan teori baru. Fakta dapat berfungsi menolak teori yang ada, melahirkan teori baru dan mempertajam teori yang telah ada.

Suatu penelitian yang berlandaskan ilmiah haruslah merupakan rangkaian berfikir seperti diuraikan diatas untuk mengejar kebenaran berdasarkan pertimbangan logika.


4. Jenis-jenis penelitian


Jenis penelitian dapat dibedakan berdasarkan tujuan maupun metoda yang digunakan.

Jenis penelitian berdasarkan tujuan :
a. Penelitian dasar (basic research) : penelitian untuk mengembangkan teori dasar dan pengujian teori yang bertujuan untuk mengembangkan ilmu pengetahuan.

b. Penelitian terapan (applied research) : penelitian terapan bertujuan untuk menerapkan suatu teori dan mengevaluasi kegunaannya dalam mengatasi suatu masalah.

c. Penelitian dan pengembangan (reseach and development) : penelitian yang ditujukan untuk mengembangkan suatu produk atau prototype untuk selanjutnya dapat diproduksi untuk kepentingan masyarakat umum

d. Penelitian tindakan (action research) : penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mengatasi suatu masalah dan menerapkan suatu metoda ilmiah serta dapat dioperasionalkan.

Jenis Penelitian berdasarkan metoda yang digunakan :

a. Penelitian histories : penelitian yang dilakukan dengan metoda rekonstruksi dari kondisi yang telah berlangsung secara sistematis dan objectives dengan cara mengumpulkan, mengevaluasi, verifikasi dan sintesis hasil temuan.

Tujuannya adalah untuk menyimpulkan penyebab, dampak atau kecenderungan dari suatu keadaan yang telah lampau yang kemudian dapat digunakan untuk menjelaskan keadaan sekarang serta dapat digunakan untuk antisipasi keadaaan mendatang.


b. Penelitian diskriptif : metoda penelitian dengan melakukan uraian secara sistematis, faktual, dan akurat mengenai fakta –fakta dan sifat populasi atau proses tertentu, untuk menguji suatu hypotesis atau menjawab pertanyaan mengenai suatu keadaan.


c. Penelitian pengembangan : metoda penelitian dengan cara melihat suatu pertumbuhan perubahan atau kecenderungan pergeseran suatu pola pada skala waktu. Kegiatan pengamatan dapat dilakukan secara serial pada waktu yang ditentukan ( longitudinal) atau secara serentak pasda target-target sasaran yang dianggap mewakili suatu rangkaian serial (cross sektional).

d. Penelitian korelasi : metoda penelitian dengan melakukan pengujian seberapa besar/ kuat korelasi antara dua taua lebih variable, yang dinyatakan dengan koefisiensi korelasi yang nilainya antara 0.00 – 1.00.

e. Penelitian kausal komparatif : penelitian dengan cara mencari kemungkinan hubungan sebab akibat dengan cara mengamati akibat (variable terpengaruh) yang sekarang terjadi dan metoda mencari kemungkinan sebabnya (variable pengaruh) dari data yang terkumpul, dalam hal ini variabel pengaruh (penyebab) tidak dapat diubah tetapi dibiarkan apa adanya.

f. Penelitian eksperimental : hampir sama dengan penelitian kausal komparatif tetapi disini penelitian dapat melakukan simulasi/perubahan pada variable pengaruh (penyebab) untuk melihat dampaknya pada variable terpengaruh (akibat).

5. Prosedur penelitian

Untuk melaksanakan penelitian yang sistematis dan berdasarkan konsep ilmiah maka proses penelitian harus meliputi langkah-langkah sebagai berikut :

a. Pemilihan dan identifikasi masalah.

Menentukan masalah apa yang akan diteliti, karena tidak semua masalah dapat diteliti. Masalah yang dapat diteliti adalah yang didukung oleh data. Selanjutnya dilakukan identifikasi untuk dapat mendudukkan masalah sesuai dengan yang sebenarnya. Identifikasi masalah ini merupakan tahap awal dari perumusan masalah.

b. Perumusan masalah.

Melakukan identifikasi dan pembatasan masalah agar jelas domain dan batas-batasnya serta menentukan faktor-faktor yang berkaitan dengan masalah tersebut.

c. Penyusunan Kerangka berfikir

Menentukan kerangka berfikir secara rasional berdasarkan premis-premis yang teruji kebenarannya dengan memepertimbangkan faktor-faktor yang relevan dengan permasalahan dalam rangka penentuan hipotesis.

d. Perumusan hipotesis

Memberikan jawaban sementara atas kesimpulan kerangka berfikir yang telah dilakukan. Dengan perumusan hipotesis ini arah penelitian akan lebih berfokus pada suatu arah yang akan diuji kebenarannya.

Manfaat yang akan dihipotesis adalah :

1) Memfokuskan masalah

2) Mengidentifikasi data-data yang relevan untuk dikumpulkan.

3) Menunjukkan desain penelitian dan teknis analisis yang akan digunakan.

4) Menjelaskan gejala sosial

5) Mendapatkan kerangka penelitian

6) Merangsang penelitian lebih lanjut

e. Memilih pendekatan penelitian

Menentukan metoda penelitian yang akan dilakukan disesuaikan dengan masalah yang akan diteliti. Penentuan metoda ini akan ditentukan oleh tujuan penelitian, hasil yang ingin dicapai dan tersedianya data.

f. Pengolahan dan analisis data

Melakukan pengumpulan, klasifikasi dan pengolahan data dengan menggunakan metoda - metoda yang baku, agar hasilnya dapat disajikan untuk siap dianalisa. Data yang telah diolah dianalisis untuk dilihat kaitannya dengan permasalahan yang akan diteliti. Analisis data ini akan melihat apakah kuantitas dan kualitas data yang tersedia sudah cukup memadai untuk memberikan kesimpulan akhir atau belum.

g. Interprestasi hasil analisis

Data hasil analisis diinterprestasikan untuk melakukan pemecahan masalah yang dihadapi.
h. Pengujian hipotesis dan menarik kesimpulan

Berdasarkan hasil interpretasi data yang diperoleh dilakukan pengujian hipotesis untuk membukitikan apakah-apakah fakta- fakta berdasarkan data yang telah didapat tersebut mendukung atau menolak hipotesis. Tidak terbuktinya suatu hipotesis bukan berarti penelitian mengalami kagagalan, tetapi justru akan memberikan arah yang lebih banyak agar penelitian bisa berhasil dan kesimpulan yang didapat lebih akurat.

6. Etika Penelitian

Dalam melakukan penelitian perlu diperhatikan etika-etika yang harus digunakan sebagai kode etik penelitian, yaitu :
a. Penelitian hendaknya bermanfaat bagi kehidupan manusia dengan memperhatikan azas-azas kemanusiaan dan ketaqwaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa.

b. Penelitian harus dilaksanakan dengan prinsip kejujuran dan kebenaran ilmiah.
c. Tidak melakukan manipulasi data agar hasil penelitian sesuai dengan yang diinginkan.

d. Peneliti harus merahasiakan sumber informasi yang didapat dari responden.

7. Penelitian Kuantitatif dan Kualitatif

Prosedur penelitian yang telah diuraikan diatas umumnya digunakan untuk penelitian kuantitatif, dimana data yang diolah dan dianalisis berbentuk angka numerik serta hasilnya dapat digambarkan dalam bentuk angka numerik. Pengumpulan data kuantitatif umumnya didapatkan dari hasil pengukuran dengan menggunakan alat sensor, misalnya jumlah barang dengan kounter, tegangan listrik dan volt meter, tekanan dengan barometer, suhu dengan thermometer dan sebagainya. Metoda penelitian kuantitatif umumnya digunakan untuk bidang ilmu eksakta dan ilmu ekonomi.

Penelitian kualitatif dilakukan untuk menjelaskan fenomena yang tidak dapat terukur secara eksak. Umumnya penelitian ini digunakan untuk penelitian masalah social, politik dan budaya dimana maslahnya berkisar mengenai interaksi tingkah laku manusia dan lingkungannya yang datanya tidak terukur dan lebih bersifat tekstual.
Berbeda dengan data kuantitatif dimana datanya dapat dibuat dalam bentuk grafik, tabel, kurva dan sebagainya, maka data kualitatif disajikan dalam bentuk tekstual. Temuan penting mungkin dapat dikumpulkan dan dibuat tabel. Dengan teknik kuisioner data kualitatif ditransfer menjadi data kuantitatif dalam bentuk persen atau skor (nilai). Data ini dapat disajikan seperti data kuantitatif tetapi harus disertai dengan penyajian secara tekstual. Artinya visualisasi tabel, kurva danb gambar fungsinya hanya mempertegas uraian naratif temuannya.

Dalam suatu penelitian dapat saja digunakan suatu metoda kuantitatif dan kualitatif sekaligus karena seringkali dalam suatu penelitian kuantitatif sangat sulit untuk dapat menggali data underlyng factor yang hanya dapat diangkat dengan metoda kualitatif, seperti misalnya masalah attitude, policy dan sebagainya.

Metodologi penelitian kualitatif umumnya dilakukan dengan beberapa macam pendekatan yaitu :

a. Pendekatan positivistic yaitu pendekatan atau faham bahwa suatu ilmu berasal dari data/ informasi empiris yang ditangkap melalui panca indra kita.

b. Pendekatan rasionalistik : yaitu berdasarkan pendekatan bahwa semua ilmu didapat dari pemahaman intelektual kita yang dibangun atas kemampuan, argumentasi secara logik bukan dibangun atas pengalaman empiri, seperti pada faham positivisme.

c. Pendekatan phenomenologik : pendekatan berilmu ini mengakui adanya kebenaran empiric etik yang memerlukan akal budi untuk melacak dan menjelaskan serta berargumentasi. Akal budi ini mengandung makna bahwa kita perlu menggunakan kriteria yang lebih tinggi yaitu nilai moral daripada hanya sekedar nilai salah benar (truth or false) seperti pada pendekatan ilmu sebelumnya.
d. Pendekatan realisme methaphisik : Sama seperti halnya pada pendekatan phenomenologik, pendekatan realisme, metha phisik juga mendasarkan pada faham bahwa kebenaran tidak hanya didapat dari hasil empiric saja namun perlu nilai moral lebih tinggi dan bahkan pendekatan lebih tinggi lagi yaitu keyakinan akan adanya Tuhan Yang Maha Pencipta alam semesta ini.


METODA PENGKAJIAN STRATEGIS

8. Perkembangan Strategi .
Strategi berasal dari kata Yunani strategos yang artinya Jenderal , dari kata strategis ini pula lahir istilah Inggris Strategems yang berarti tricks of War atau tipu muslihat perang. Strategi juga diartikan ilmunya para Jendral. Strategi berasal dari perkembangan pemikiran Barat, tetapi pemikir strategi militer terbesar yang pertama adalah Sun Tsu dari Cina. Dialah yang pertamakali yang menulis mengenai taktik perang dan strategi antara tahun 400 s.d 320 SM. Dalam buku yang berjudul Ping-fa (The art of War) strategi menjadi beda yang dikaji secara luas dan ilmiah baru pada abad ke-18 setelah dunia dipesona oleh Napoleon (1769-1821) dengan kemenangan –kemenangannya yang spektakuler, sebelumnya diskusi dan kajian mengenai strategi masih bersifat intuitif dan didasarkan pada penelaahan sejarah perang bangsa-bangsa Yunanai dan Romawi yang sebenarnya baru membahas tingkat taktik dan bukan strategi. Analisa TOR paling terkemuka mengenai strategi pada jaman itu adalah Karl Von Clausewitzh (1780 -1831) dan Antonine Henry Jomini (1779 – 1869). Jomini banyak menulis tentang teori memenangkan perang sedangkan Clausewitzh menulis tentang Hakikat Dasar Perang, dengan hasil karyanya Form Kriage ( tentang perang) yang merupakan karya tulisnya yang paling monumental tentang strategi.

Clausewitzh mendefinisikan strategi sebagai : “ Menggunakan kampanye untuk mencapai sasaran perang (The use of engagement to attain the object of war). Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary (1979) menyebut strategi sebagai: ilmu merencanakan dan memimpin operasi militer berskala besar, khususnya gerakan pasukan kedudukan yang paling menguntungkan sebelum terjadi pertempuran yang sebenarnya dengan musuh “ (The Science of planning and directing large scale military operation, specifically of manuvering forces into the most advantegous position prior to actual engagement with the enemy).

9. Strategi Jaman Sekarang
Kedua rumusan tersebut diatas bernuansakan abad ke-19/20 yang untuk abad ke 20/21 sekarang sudah tidak tepat lagi. Strategi dalam abad sekarang penggunaannya mencakup bidang yang semakin luas. Strategi bukan hanya ilmunya para jenderal, tetapi ilmunya semua orang, institusi atau Negara yang belajar dan mengetrapkan ilmu strategi. Perang modern sangat terkait dengan faktor-faktor sosial politik, ekonomi dan juga budaya, sehingga kajian bidang strategis tidak hanya menyangkut perangnya saja namun juga pada masa damai, yang meliputi berbagai aspek yang terkait menempatkan bidang strategi pada tingkatan yang lebih luas, yaitu strategi besar, (Grand Strategy). Faktor-faktor yang terkait dalam grand strategy misalnya adalah kekuatan ekonomi sosial, situasi politik nasional, perkembangan teknologi, perkembangan moneter,hubungan diplomasi dan kerjasama internasional. dan sebagainya. Dengan lingkup yang sangat luas tersebut, maka kajian strategi akan melibatkan banyak disiplin ilimu (multi disiplin).

Strategy is all about how (ways or concepts) leadership will use the power (instruments and resources, or means) available to the state to exercise control over sets of circumstances and geographic locations to achieve objectives (ends) that support state interests. Strategy provides direction for the coercive or persuasive use of this power to achieve specified objectives . (Strategi adalah tentang bagaimana caranya seorang pemimpin menggunakan kekuatan nasional yang memungkinkan bagi suatu Negara untuk melaksanakan pengendalian segenap lingkungan dan lokasi geografi dalam rangka untuk mencap[ai tujuannya. Strategi memberikan arah untuk menggunakan kekerasan atau persuasive dalam mencapai sasarannya).

10. Kajian Strategis
Pada masa Perang Dingin kajian strategis menekankan pada pemahaman mengenai penggunaan kekuatan militer dalam politik internasional, khususnya penggunaan senjata nuklir. Sebagaimana tampak dari berbagai definisi di atas, beberapa pakar melihat strategi dalam fokus yang lebih luas terhadap “power”, sementara beberapa pakar mengemukakan dinamika kualitas proses yang melekat dalam perumusan strategi. Belakangan, para pakar menekankan bahwa kajian strategis mempunyai aplikasi masa damai di samping masa perang. Kajian strategis bukanlah sekedar kajian tetang perang dan kampanye militer. Strategi adalah penerapan kekuatan militer untuk tujuan politis atau secara spesifik “teori dan praktek tentang penggunaan, atau ancaman penggunaan kekuatan teroraginisir, untuk kepentingan politik”. Lebih luas lagi adalah konsep Strategi Besar (Grand Strategy) yang melibatkan koordinasi dan pengarahan “seluruh sumber daya bangsa menuju pencapaian tujuan politik”

Kajian strategis pada dasarnya bersifat interdisipliner. Untuk memahami dimensi strategi adalah perlu memahami sedikit tentang politik, ekonomi, psikologi, sisiologi, geografi di samping teknologi, struktur kekuatan dan taktik. Kajian strategis juga tidak dapat dikatakan sebagai sustu dispilin ilmu tersendiri Meskipun merupakan suatu bidang kajian dengan fokus yang tajam – peran kekuatan militer – tapi tidak ada parameter yang jelas dan bergantung pada gagasan atau konsep seni, ilmu pengetahuan alam dan ilmu sosial. Banyak pemikir yang menyumbangkan karya tulisnya datang dari disiplin ilmu yang berbeda. Herman Kahn adalah ahli fisika, Thomas Schelling adalah ahli ekonomi, Albert Wholsletter adalah ahli matematik, Henry Kissinger adalah sejarawan dan Bernard Brodie ilmuwan politik. Hal ini mengundang perdebatan tentang metodologi apa yang harus digunakan dalam kajian ini. Di lain pihak, perhatian yang lebih besar pada pendekatan akademis dirasakan mengabaikan aspek operasional militer dalam kajian ini. Ada pandangan bahwa masalah strategi terlalu besar untuk diserahkan sepenuhnya kepada para jenderal. Dalam perkembangannya pada akhir tahun 1940an, para analis sipil mendominasi bidang kajian ini. Tapi pada tahun 1980an dirasakan bahwa banyak akademisi sipil yang mengabaikan kemampuan dan keterbatasan satuan-satuan dan operasi militer dalam analisis dan teorisasi mereka. Ilmu militer (military science) merupakan disiplin ilmu yang “hilang”.

Kajian strategis banyak mendapat kritik, di mana para pakar strategis dianggap sebagai:

- Terobsesi dengan konflik dan kekuatan

- Tidak cukup peduli dengan masalah-masalah etis

- Tidak ilmiah dalam pendekatan mereka

- Bagian dari permasalahan, bukan solusi

- Berorientasi pada negara (state-centric)

Kritik seperti ini muncul akibat banyaknya para akademisi yang mendalami kajian ini terlibat dalam proses pengambilan keputusan atau “dikontrak” oleh pemerintah (terutama pemerintah Amerika Serikat) sebagai penasihat. Tapi para ahli strategi menyanggah kritikan tersebut dengan argumentasi bahwa pemikiran-pemikiran mereka adalah cerminan (bukan yang menciptakan) realita politik dunia. Para pembuat kebijakan cenderung untuk mempunyai pandangan “realis” yang sama akibat iklim intelektual yang dibangun bukan oleh para akademisi tapi oleh tantangan dan ancaman yang mereka hadapi dalam hubungan internasional.

Salah satu tantangan bagi Kajian Strategis pasca Perang Dingin adalah apakah ilmu ini masih relevan mengingat perang-perang besar nyaris berkurang sementara ancaman keamanan terhadap kepentingan politik, ekonomi, sosial dan keamanan lingkungan lebih meningkat. Berakhirnya Perang Dingin sebenarnya tidak secara otomatis menciptakan perdamaian dan stabilitas keamanan dunia. Munculnya ancaman non-tradisional misalnya terorisme internasional, perdagangan narkoba, kejahatan lintas negara, dan sebagainya mengharuskan adanya penyesuaian dalam Kajian Strategis. Upaya-upaya ke arah perdamaian memunculkan konsep-konsep baru seperti preventive diplomacy, common security dan confidence building measures.

11. Metodologi kajian strategis

Berdasarkan proposi-proposi yang termuat dalam permasalahan strategi maka kajian strategi dikategorikan pada penelitian social dan bukan eksakta, karena umumnya factor-faktor yang muncul dalam berbagai kasus tidak dapat diukur dalam bantuan suatu alat ukur, namun demikian tidak berarti bahwa hanya dapat digunakan dengan metoda penelitian kualitatif. Kombinasi metoda kualitatif dan kuantitatif sering dapat digunaakan untuk dapat menggali semua data, informasi dan fakta yang ada dan terbukti sangat efektif untuk menghasilkan kajian yang sangat berbobot.

Berdasarkan tujuan untuk memecahkan suatu permasalahan tertentu, maka kajian strategis dapat digolongkan pada penelitian terapan (Applied research) atau lebih tepat lagi sebagai penelitian tindakan (Action research) sedangkan berdasarkan metoda yang digunakan maka kajian strategis dapat digolongkan pada semua jenis penelitian, yaitu penelitian histories, deskriptif, pengembangan, korelasi, kausal komperative, danpebnelitian ekperimental tergantung apada kasus yang akan dikaji/ diteliti.

Sebagai contoh kajian strategis dengan topic /judul :“Strategi TNI dalam mensukseskan program gerakan disiplin nasional “ maka untuk dapat menemukan strategi apa yang dapat digunakan untuk mensukseskan program GDN, dapat dilakukan dengan mengamati perilaku masyarakat dalam mentaatai suatu ketentuan hukum, kebiasaaan dan budaya yang melekat dalam masyarakat, serta factor factor lain yang menjadi presmis dalam penuyusunan strategi. Untuk kasusu tersebut maka metoda yang dapat digunakan adalah misalnya dengan menggunakan penelitian histories atau kausal-komparatif.

Contoh yang kedua adalah misalnya pengkajian “ Konsep strategi Hankam Matra Laut Guna mendukung Pembangunan Indonesia Bagian Timur”. Untuk kajian tersebut maka penelitian diskriptif atau pengembangan dapat digunakan untuk menjawab konsep strategi pada suatu kondisi dan tempat tertentu.

Metoda penelitian ilmiah pada dasarnya berlaku untuk semua disiplin keilmuan, baik ilmu alam maupun social. Perbedaannya hanya terletak pada aspek teknik pengumpulan datanya saja bukan pada aspek struktur berpikir dan metodologinya.


12. Prosedur Kajian Strategis

a. Pemilihan dan Identifikasi Masalah

Penelitian ataupun kajian strategis pada dasarnya adalah upaya mengidentifikasi masalah , penyebab masalah, memecahkan atau menjawab permasalahan yang dijumpai yang berkaitan dengan hal-hal stratgeis. Oleh karena itu langkah awal yang paling menentukan adalah : “ Bagaimana memformulasikan masalah secara benar “. Kesalahan dalam formulasi dapat menyebabkan kesulitan dalam menjelaskan atau mencari jawabannya. Jika masalah sudah teridentifikasi dan terformulasi dengan benar maka langkah-langkah berikutnya umumnya sudah dapat ditentukan. Salah satu metoda yang paling praktis untuk mengidentifikasi masalah adalah dengan mengggunakan table/matrik keterkaitan antara faktor dan variable yang mungkin ada hubungannya dengan masalah yang dibahas. Sisi kolom diisi dengan faktor faktor dan sisi baris diiisi dengan variabel atau konfigurasi lain yang lebih cocok untuk menilai keterkaitan factor/variable tersebut. Dari table ini dapat secara mudah dicari keterkaitannya sehingga memudahkan untuk perumusan masalah selanjutnya.

b. Perumusan Masalah

Perumusan masalah merupakan penjabaran identifikasi masalah. Dalam perumusan masalah ditentukan hal-hal sebagai berikut :

1) Ruang lingkup atau pembatasan masalahnya, baik dalam domain ruang atau waktu atau domain lainnya yang bertujuan agar pembahasan bisa lebih terarah dan tajam. Pembatasan masalah umumnya didasarkan pada tersedianya data, faktor-faktor yang signifikan dan kemampuan kita untuk meneliti, sehingga dapat memudahkan dalam analisis selanjutnya.

2) Menentukan tujuan penelitian, sasaran yang ingin dicapai dan keluaran yang diharapkan.

3) Menentukan metoda yang akan digunakan.

Dengan perumusan masalah yang baik, bukan saja membantu memusatkan pikiran tetapi juga sekaligus mengarahkan cara berpikir kita. Perumusan masalah dapat dilakukan secara deskriptif, komparatif atau asosiatif.

c. Penyusunan kerangka berpikir

Merupakan argumentasi yang menjelaskan kaitan yang mungkin terdapat antar berbagai faktor terkait dan membentuk konstalasi masalah. Kerangka berpikir ini disusun secara rasional berdasarkan premis-premis yang teruji kebenarnnya dengan mempertimbangkan faktor-faktor yang relevan dengan permasalahannya. Hasilnya adalahg konsepsi-konsepsi yang kemudian diturunkan dalam bentuk hipotesa. Kerangka berpikir merupakan argumentasi kita dalam merumuskan hipotesis.



d. Perumusan hipotesis

Merupakan jawaban sementara atau dugaan terhadap jawaban dari pertanyaan yang diajukan dan bahannya merupakan kesimpulan dari pengembangan kerangka berpikir. Pada umumnya hipotesis dirumuskan untuk menggambarkan hubungan antara dua variable yaitu variable penyebab dan variable akibat. Hipotesis merupakan pernyataan yang sangat penting kedudukannya dalam penelitian.

Persyaratan hipotesis adalah :

1) Hipotesis harus dirumuskan dengan singkat tetapi jelas.

2) Hipotesis harus dengan nyata menunjukkan adanya hubungan antara dua atau lebih variable.

3) Hipotesis harus didukung oleh teori-teori yang ditemukan oleh para ahli atau hasil penelitian yang relevan.

Untuk merumuskan hipotesis maka argumentasi kerangka berpikir yang digunakan adalah logika deduktif dengan menggunakan pengetahuan ilmiah sebagai premis-premis dasarnya.

Hipotesis dapat dibagi atas 2 jenis yaitu :

Hipotesis alternative atau Hipotesis kerja

Menyatakan hubungan antara dua buah variable x dan y.
1) Hipotesis nol atau Hipotesis statistic

Menyatakan tidak adanya hubungan perbedaaan antara dua buah variable yang biasanya diuji dengan perhitungan statistik.

e. Memilih pendekatan penelitian

Pemilihan metoda penelitian adalah tergantung pada kasus yang akan dibahas. Untuk membahas masalah startegis seperti: “Konsep Strategi Hankam Matra Laut Guna Mengendalikan Corong Timur Untuk Menghadapi Lingstra 10 Tahun Mendatang”. Maka pendekatan yang dapat digunakan adalah penelitian pengembangan. Ada 3 faktor yang dapat disusun dalam kerangka pemikiran yaitu: strategi hamkam matra laut, corong timur dan lingstra 10 tahun mendatang. Pengamatan dilakukan untuk melihat perkembangan, perubnahan dan kecenderungan dua faktor yang pertama terhadap pola perkembangan, faktor yang perubahan dan kecenderungan dua faktor yang pertama terhadap pola perkembangan faktor yang ketiga.

Kegiatan pengamatan dapat dilakukan secara serial (longitudinal) yaitu pengamatan dalam jangka waktu yang lama dan terus menerus atau dilakukan secara crossektional, atau tingkatan tersebut akan dapat dibuat kesimpulannya yang sama dengan cara longitudinal.

f. Pengumpulan , pengolahan dan analisis data

Pengumpulan data dapat dilakukan dengan teknik observasi, wawancara dan angket.
1) Observasi adalah pengamatan dan pencacatan yang sistematis terhadap gejala-gejala yang diteliti. Teknik observasi digunakan apabila tidak dimungkinkan kita mendapatkan respon secara langsung dari obyekpengamatan sehingga pengumpulan data dilakukan secara sepihak, untuk itu maka ketelitian dan keandalan observer sangan menentukan keberhasilan pengumpulan data.
2) Wawancara adalah Tanya jawab lisan antara dua orang atau lebih secara langsung. Wawancara berguana untuk mendapat data secara langsung dari tangan pertana atau sebagai pelengkap dari teknik atau pengumpulan data lainnya.
3) Angket adalah teknik pengumpulan data dengan mengajukan sejhumlah daftar pertanyaan kepada responden baik secara langsung maupun secara post.
4) Dokumen atau literartur adalah pengumpulan data melalui buku, majalah atau sumber informasi lainnya.
Data yang didapat dari hasil observasi, wawancara dan angket adalah merupakan data primer sedangkan data yang didapat dari literatur umumnya merupakan data sekunder. Untuk mendapatkan data yang actual dalam suatu kajian strategis, maka metoda metoda tersebut dapat digunakan, umumnya lebih dulu digunakan penelusuran data /informasi melalui dokumen atau literature yang merupakan kumpulan hasil penelitian sebelumnya, karena cara ini adalah yang paling mudah dan murah. Selanjutnya juga memang diperlukan data primer maka dapat digunakan metoda angket atau wawancara.
Data atau informasi dari suatu kajian strategis, umumnya merupakan data tekstual yang tidak bisa diukur dengan suatu kuantitas, sehingga harus dilakukanpengolahan data/informasi secara kualitatif. Namun dapat juga dikombinasikan dengan pengolahan data kuantitatif, yaitu misalnya data hasil wawancara atau angket dikonversikan kedalam bentu numeric dan kemudian dilakukan pengolahan data secara statistic untuk keemudian hasilnya diterjemahkan kembali ke dalam bentuk data atau proposisi kualitatif.

g. Pengujian hipotesis

Pengumpulan fakta-fakta yang relevan sebagai hasil analisis untuk membuktikan bahwa fakta-fakta tersebut mendukung atau menolak hipotesis jika hipotesis diterima maka secara empiric akan memberikan sumbangan pragmatis pada suatu kegiatan penelitian atau pengkajian, sedangkan jika hipotesis ditolak maka hal ini akan memberikan sumbangan korektif dari kerangka berpikir sebelumnya.
h. Menarik kesimpulan

Kesimpulan merupakan pertanyaan singkat, jelas dan sistematis dari keseluruhan hasil analisis danpembahasan serta pengetesan hipotesis yang diajukan dalam penelitian.

PENUTUP

13. Kesimpulan

1) Suatu penelitian atau kajian baik dikalangan militer maupun sipil perlu direncanakan dan dilaksanakan sesuai dengan metodologi penelitian ilmiah yang benar agar hasilnya dapat dipertanggung jawabkan dengan kaidah-kaidah ilmu pengetahuan, sehingga hasilnya akan memberikan sumbangan atau kontribusi pada pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan itu sendiri.

2) Suatu kajian strategis pada dasarnya juga merupakan suatu penelitian ilmiah yang dapat digunakan metoda penelitian dengan ruang lingkup yang sangat luas. Data dan informasi yang tersedia umumnya merupakan data yang sangat variatif dengan tingkat ketidakpastian yang cukup tinggi, dengan demikian analisis yang dilakukan sulit untuk bisa menerapkan metoda-metoda kuantitatif. Metoda kuantitatif dilakukan hanya untuk justifikasi dari suatu proposisi yang didapat sehingga menguatkan argument yang digunakan mendukung kesimpulan.

3) Pengembangan metodoleogi penelitian dengan teknik-teknik analiasis yang baru seperti menggunakan simulasi, computer untuk perhitungan statistik dan pemodelan suatu behaviour sangat membantu dalam meningkatkan kualitas suatu pengkajian strategis.


14. Saran

Kiranya para perwira sekalian membiasakan menulis kajian strategis yang bersifat ilmiah akademis dengan mengunakan metodologi penulisan ilmiah yang baik. Model penulisan ini dapat dimulai di lembaga pendidikan, lembaga pengkajian strategis dan lembaga struktural strategis. Dengan tuntutan jaman dimana diperlukan Sumber daya Manusia yang mempunyai daya intelektual tinggi, maka pembelajaran dan pengembangan secara terus menerus/ continous improvement perlu untuk selalu dilakaukan.


15. Penutup

Dalam era moderen sekarang ini lembaga pengkajian strategis Angkatan

bersenjata mempunyai peran yang cukup menonjol bagi pertahanannya, utamanya meberikan pandangan secara akademik dan aplikatif serta up to date. Oleh karena itu Peran lembaga Pusjiantra TNI Dalam Perumusan Kebijakan Pertahanan RI maupun TNI akan sangat diperlukan kontribusinya. Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Pusjiantra TNI akan tetap mempunyai arti penting mengingat pendekatan yang berbeda di mana kajian Pusjiantra TNI akan lebih bersifat akademis/ilmiah. Selanjutnya hasil kajian dapat dipakai sebagai referensi atau masukan atau kalau disetujui oleh panglima TNI dapat dijabarkan kedalam doktrin TNI sesuai dengan tingkatannya.

Demikian tentang uraian metodologi penelitian ilmiah serta pemanfaaatannya dalam pengkajian strategis, sehingga tulisan ini dapat bermanfaat dan dapat memberikan sumbangan dalam meningkatkan kinerja lembaga pengkajian strategi maupun perorangan, agar dapat menghasilkan kajian-kajian yang bermanfaaat bagi pengembangan kekuatan dan kemampuan Hankam.

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Maritim security

“South East Asia Maritime Security Challenges: Indonesian Perspective”.
(Presented at NADI Vietnam, Hochimin City, 19-22 April 2010, by Dr. A. Y.Antariksa)
First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to The Institute for Military Strategy, Ministry of National Defence of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam for organizing this important NADI meeting to all ASEAN Institute and Security Studies in order to established Confidence Building Measure at this Region.
The title of my presentation is “South East Asia Maritime Security Challenges: Indonesian Perspective”.
Measure the importance of maritime security
Presentation Outline
I. Measure - Importance of Maritime Security at South East Asia.
II. Maritime Security Challenges.
III. Examine - Regional Initiatives and Mechanisms.

Part 1 Measure the importance of maritime security at South East Asia

The importance of maritime security can be measured in terms of vital interests. Security is recognized as the protection of vital interests in order to maintain acceptable quality of life. So….what is the maritime issues that impact vital interests? Factors that impact vital interests in terms of economic prosperity, territorial integrity and human security or QOL. Also, there are main players that have a major impact on the domain in this region.

Southeast Asia is home to important sea-lanes and straits, including the Malacca Straits, one of the busiest waterways in the world. Over half the world’s commercial shipping passes through these SLOCs each year, more than 90,000 ships, which includes 80% of the oil transported to Japan and China. The traffic volume. Which totals 525 million metric tons worth about $390 billion dollar…makes the Malacca Straits in particular, the busiest straits in the world? , and it is likely to be even busier in the future because of the increasing trade flow and energy demands in Asia. By 2020, numbers are expected to surge to over 150,000 vessels each year.

Additionally, many other vessels, including fishing boats, passenger vessels, and pleasure craft ply the region’s watersGoods are moved via major shipping lanes or SLOCs.
Depicted in this chart is the most direct route from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific. # 1 identifies the Straits of Malacca - a narrow 500 nm stretch of water between Malaysia and Indonesia island of Sumatra. Another route is the Sunda Straits - #2 connecting the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean. This straits narrowness and shallowness and lack of accurate charting make it unsuitable for current large ships. #3 points to the Lombok Strait located between the islands of Bali and Lombok in Indonesia. The 4th significant sea lane is the Makassar Straits located between the islands of Borneo and Indonesia.

On The Economic prosperity
• Some of the world’s busiest ports are also located in Southeast Asia or rely on maritime traffic through the region’s waters. Singapore harbour, for instance, has the largest container turnover rate in the world after Hong Kong, followed by the Chinese ports of Shanghai and Shenzhen. Many of the ships bound for these ports, or other major East and Southeast Asian ports, transit Southeast Asian waters.
• international sea borne trade, maritime annual growth all in Asia. Another important point is the revolution in shipping industry: Largest ships carry,
• to meet growing trade demands, the merchant fleets of the world are expanding.
• Oil tankers and dry bulk carriers


South East Asia also rich in oil, gas, sea bed mining and resources. Another factor which underlines the importance is marine resources. Regional Countries are increasingly looking towards possible oil and gas reserves and other mineral resources beneath the sea for future economic security, along with fisheries which remains the staple food source and revenue for many countries in the region.

Territorial Integrity
Overlapping claims to explore new reserves has fostered competing maritime ambitions and focused attention on territorial and maritime boundary disputes.
To better understand the issues surrounding these boundaries, I display these key terms of reference governing maritime zones.

• First are territorial seas – waters of sovereignty for coastal states - extends to 12 nms from baselines. Ships of all states enjoy the “right of passage” through territorial seas – but such passage shall be continuous and expeditious – no stopping or anchorage. Passage is innocent so long it is not prejudicial to the peace, good order or security of the coastal state.
• Next is the contiguous zone – area between 12 and 24 nautical miles – the coastal state is given special rights – for example the right of coastal states to intercept vessels suspected of smuggling people, goods, arms, or WMD into its territory.
• The Exclusive Economic Zone OR EEZ is an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, extending to 200 nms. As the name suggests, the rights of coastal states consist of sovereign rights to explore and exploit the natural resources of the EEZ. It has jurisdiction over fishing and other economic activities in the EEZ. Freedom of other states is limited to freedom of navigation and over flight.
• An area not depicted on this chart, but of significance to the geography of the South East Asia - is archipelagic waters. The first important point is the right that allows states that are constituted wholly by archipelagos to draw baselines connecting the outermost part of these islands, of which territorial sea and beyond are measured, e.g. in example in SE Asia would be Indonesia & ROP. The second point is that all ships and aircraft enjoy the right of archipelagic sea lanes passage – similar to rights of passage in territorial sea.
• Finally, there are the high seas OR intl waters - beyond the outer limits of the EEZs of any state. These waters are not subject to a claim of sovereignty by any State. Every State has the right to sail ships flying its flag on the high seas.


Maritime Boundaries
• Maritime Boundaries are represented in the context of UNCLOS – the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This is a large and complex convention that provides the constitution for the oceans and the basis for jurisdiction. This convention sets out the rights and duties of a state with regard to the uses of the oceans and prescribes the regime of maritime zones that grants States sovereignty rights over ocean spaces and resources.
• Perhaps there is no other region in the world where the enactment of the (UNCLOS) plays such a key role in relations between countries. UNCLOS is considered the most important framework for regulating freedom of the seas and managing marine resources. Not only does it provide clear provisions on territorial waters and EEZs, which before this convention were long standing controversies…it also provides certain rights to landlocked countries– providing access to the sea and potential share of surplus resources of adjacent EEZs.
• Most territorial disputes occur because of overlapping claims under UNCLOS. On this slide, the dark blue in the chart represents territorial sea and the medium blue depicts EEZs – As you can see, many overlapping areas among nations.
• Correspondingly, disputed boundaries impacts navigation regimes and fisheries, which I’ll examine in the analyses and assessment of transnational treats and issues.
Human Security And Quality Of Life.

• Finally, the importance of maritime security can be measured in terms of human security and quality of life.
• For example – let’s take the case of APEC and South East Asia economy oil dependency. First it is important to recognize that although the South East Asia region and APEC have five of the 10 largest crude oil producers APEC oil import dependency is expected to rise from 36 percent in the case of APEC Energy Let’s look at one In the case and the case of oil demand
• Increasing energy demand, environmental degradation to the marine environment, and the cultural affinity due to the geographic nature of the region. All important aspects affecting people’s quality of life.

Blue Water Navies
• Growth in influence is a key factor, which plays out by blue water navies expanding their forward presence.
• China depends on freedom of the seas as a continuing source of trade and investment so critical to its modernization goals. As part of their maritime strategy, China is enhancing its economic, political and defense relations with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( Bru, Camb, Indon, Laos, Mal, Brun, ROP, Sing, Thail and VN.) or ASEAN ….AND establishing a string of pearls for its navy along the major sea lanes carrying its oil from the M. E. through the Malacca and Singapore straits.
• This string of pearls describes China’s efforts to increase access to ports, develop special diplomatic relationships, and modernize military forces that extend from the South China Sea across the Indian Ocean and on to the Arabian Gulf.
• Each “pearl” in the “String” is a nexus of Chinese geopolitical military presence. Starting with Point 1 - Hainan Island, recently upgraded military facilities. An upgraded airstrip on Woody Island at point 2. Construction of a deep water port in Sittwe, Burma shown here as point 3 is an adjoining “pearl,” as is a container shipping facility in Chittagong, Bangladesh at pt 4. The last point reflects the most advanced and largest project, the construction of a navy base in Gwadar, Pakistan. For China, the strategic value of Gwadar is its 240-mile distance from the Strait of Hormuz. China is funding a majority of the $1.2 billion project and providing the technical expertise of hundreds of engineers. Since construction began in 2002, China has invested four times more than Pakistan and contributed an additional $200 million towards the building of a highway to connect Gwadar with Karachi.


Interests
• Along with China, India is re establishing itself in the region. Primary areas of interest range from the Persian Gulf to the Antarctic and from Cape of Good Hope to the Straits of Malacca, and through Southeast Asia. Major interests that shape their maritime strategy include protecting seaborne trade, energy security and under seas mineral resources. India sees its Navy and Coast Guard as the major stabilizing forces in the movement of energy across the Indian Ocean. Of the latter, India imports nearly all its needs for cobalt, nickel and copper. Consequently, the plentiful under-sea resources of the scarce mineral form an important national interest. Also, Maritime diplomacy plays an important role as an essential component of India’s “Look East” Policy – Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam etc….. Some view this development as being encouraged by Japan and U.S. as a counterweight to China forward presence.
• Japan depends heavily on the straits and the South China Sea as routes for its oil imports and has long been active in assisting littoral countries in ensuring freedom of navigation throughout these SLOCS.
• For Australia, maritime forward presence is primarily aimed at promoting stability and good governance in the South Pacific
• For the U.S., PACOM addresses maritime security with allies in the region to deny terrorists transit and sanctuary at sea. U.S. efforts are also aimed at building regional capacity and strengthening multilateral cooperation among the littoral states to this aim.


Part II Maritime security Challenges

Now I want to shift to assessing Part II: Maritime Security Challenges. The continued growth in international commerce has been accompanied by growth in the use of the maritime domain for criminal and terrorist’s purposes. Estimated future maritime security challenges faced by ASEAN range from transnational threats, including maritime terrorism, sea piracy /sea robbery, illegal migration, refugees/human trafficking, assistance during natural disasters, smuggling, illegal fishing, pollution and destruction of the ecosystem, have spawned a multitude of additional “out of area” operational roles for regional navies, and have dramatically increased the maritime security challenges of the South Asian region.
Incidents of piracy, maritime crime, and terrorism tend to be concentrated in areas of heavy commercial maritime activity, especially where there is significant political and economic instability in the region and little or no maritime law enforcement capacity.
Terrorism in the maritime domain provides opportunities to cause significant disruption to regional and global economies. Some terrorist groups have used shipping as a means of conveyance for positioning their agents, logistical support, and generating revenue.


Also to Review and assess key: Maritime Security Challenges At south East Asia

A primary issue always being assessed by maritime protectors is choke points connecting these SLOCs. In particular, areas between Singapore and Darwin, Australia…. and the straits between the Indian and Pacific Ocean constitute the most significant bottleneck in the world.
Again, over half the commercial shipping of the world passes through this area each year, a huge economic impact if access were restricted. And as this slide reveals, in the lower right hand corner red circled, the most confined point is in the Singapore Straits where, at its narrowest point in the passage is a bare 600-800m wide.
• What is worth pointing out is highlighted by the second and third bullets in this slide.
• A real and credible threat. In particular, International Atomic Energy Agency warns that as many as 30 countries could soon have technology that would let them produce atomic bombs in a very short time, always with the potential to export technology.

Secondly WMD

• The real challenge with (Weapon Mass Destruction) WMD in this domain is the traffic flow in which to track shipping AS some 18 million total containers make over 200 million trips per year on the high seas. For the past ten years, demand for cargo capacity has been growing almost 10% a year. There are ships that can carry over 11,000 TEU ("Emma Mærsk", 1,300 feet long), and designers are working on freighters capable of 14,000 TEU. At some point, container ships will be constrained in size only by the Straits of Malacca, one of the world's busiest shipping lanes. There are plans underway for a quarter-mile-long ship, called the Malacca-Max, targeting a capacity of 18,000 containers (for scope, it would take $1 billion in cargo down with it if it sank).

Thirdly, Significant transnational threat– Maritime Terrorism.
• I narrow the definition for the purpose of analysis in the maritime domain. Just to remember Maritime Terrorism can be happen again at any time.

• As for maritime terrorism, only half a dozen or so groups have developed maritime attack capabilities. I will highlight two prominent ones – first - LTTE.
• The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam or LTTE as many of you know is a militant organization that has been waging a secessionist campaign against Sri Lankan govt since the 1970s with the purpose of securing a separate state for the Tamil majority regions in the north and east of Sri Lanka. AND is proscribed as a terrorist organization by 32 countries
• This is one of few terrorist groups with domain expertise. LTTE has been able to build a robust maritime infrastructure through a procurement network in Europe & Australia to procure and ship dual-user technology and weapons. Their capabilities include underwater demolition teams, strike groups, engineering and boat-building units, logisitics support teams, reconnaissance and intelligence sections.
• Sea Tigers - an amphibious warfare unit focusing on utilization of naval firepower and logistics, mainly consisting lightweight boats. The LTTE continuously attacks shipping off the coast of Sri Lanka by blowing ships up or by acts of piracy. Attacks on the USS Cole off Yemen and piracy off the coast of Somalia, possibly copied the LTTE tactics.

• Al Qaeda is the other significant terrorist organization that threatens the maritime domain. They have used trawlers and other vessels to transport arms, ammunition, and explosives from country to country. Both the Cole and Limburg attacks in Yemen. Execution phase – 30 minutes.
• Although AL Qaeda has demonstrated a maritime capability, I would say that they do not possess a permanent and robust infrastructure dedicated to maritime ops. Unlike LTTE, Al Qaeda has neither a blue or brown-water fleet. And although roughly two dozen ships over the past couple years have been linked to Al Qaeda support or activities by the intelligence communities, to date no ship have been intercepted transporting weapons in the A-P region.
• And lastly Somalia High Jacking that possibility followed by another countries.

Maritime terrorism in Southeast Asia
• In SE Asia, terrorist groups listed in this slide have committed acts of piracy primarily for the purpose of funding more lethal, shock events. For example, the Free Aceh Movement – which was a separatist group seeking independence for the Aceh region of Sumatra fm Indonesia. , but has since surrendered its separates intentions and dissolved its armed wing following 2005 peace agreement with Indonesian govt.
• Another example is the Moro Islamic Liberation Front or MILF which is a Muslim separatist rebel group located in S Philippines. Accuses PI army of crimes against Muslims. AND the Largest separatist group in PI.
• The picture on this slide reveals the terrorist actions of the Abu Sayyaf –a militant organization based in southern Philippines seeking a separate Islamic state for the country’s Muslim minority. In Feb 2004 the group planted a bomb in the tourist compartment of Super Ferry 14, steaming between Manila and the southern Philippines. The explosion and subsequent fire killed 118, which remains the worst maritime terrorist attack in history.

So what to look out for? – I would say that terrorists groups primarily exploit the maritime domain for support, not offensive operations. Compared to air and land transportation, the threat from terrorism to naval ships and commercial shipping is considered medium to low for two reasons. First, very few groups possess the capabilities or expertise to attack maritime targets. Most of these groups do not have access to large boats or ships that can operate outside territorial waters. Second, unlike the aviation and land transportation domains, the maritime domain naturally does not constitute high-profile national symbols that draw extensive publicity and fear such as threats to airports and train stations.
• As to floating bombs – for example the LNG threat - LNG tankers do not present particularly good terrorist targets. Reason being is that in the transportable liquid state, LNG is not explosive. Only when LNG is heated and becomes a gas, and is unconfined, is it explosive. Natural gas is only flammable within a narrow range of concentrations in the air (5%-to-15%). Less air does not contain enough oxygen to sustain a flame, while more air dilutes the gas too much for it to ignite.
• The more credible threats are those that have the potential to create world news coverage, economic impact, and high shock value, such as cruise liner bombings, mining of choke points, liquid propane carriers or suicide bombers.
• When LPG (liquefied petroleum gas, or propane) tanks are engulfed in a fire, they explode in a devastating manner, called a BLEVE - boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion. The explosion occurs because the top of the tank becomes very hot and weakened then the high pressure fuel inside causes the tank to rupture and explode with a significant footprint of devastation in any hub port. The economic Impact of closing a hub port in the global trading system is significant. It is estimated that closing the hub port of Singapore could easily exceed $200 billion US dollars a year, or U.S. port approx a billion $s a day.

Illegal Trafficking And Smuggling.
• Another threat to human security in the region has been illegal trafficking and smuggling. I would say this will remain a major challenge and an important factor that will continue to affect maritime security for the foreseeable future.
• Reasons being - these crimes at sea are invariably transnational in nature w/ more than one national jurisdiction involved…THUS…Enforcement can be very complex – nationality of vessel, victims, location – can all be different & jurisdictional competence varies in different regions.
• The foot soldiers in this threat are mainly fisherman and unemployed
• Potential for terrorists to take advantage of human smuggling networks in attempts to circumvent border security cannot be ignored.
• As security in ports of entry, at land-borders, and at airports tightens, criminals and terrorists will likely consider undefended coastlines for unlawful entry.
• Many countries face difficulties in combating these threats due to a shortage of trained personnel, lack of modern equipment and inadequate national legislation.

Piracy And Robbery
Pirates still menace the world’s shipping, and the SE ASIA region is no exception.
• The intl community recognizes two intl agencies in assessing these transnational threats.
• First is the International Maritime Bureau whose responsibilities lie in fighting crimes related to maritime trade and transportation, particularly piracy and in protecting the crews of ocean-going vessels. (Founded in 1981) is a specialized bureau of the International Chamber of Commerce. It publishes a weekly piracy report and maintains a 24-hour piracy reporting centre in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Endorsed by the UN's International Maritime Organization, and has observer status with Interpol.
• IMB defines piracy as – an act of boarding or attempting to board any ship with the intent to commit theft or any other crime w/ intent to use force.
 Another definition used to assess this threat comes from the IMO, established by the UN. The UN established the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in 1948. IMO's main task is to develop and maintain a comprehensive regulatory framework for shipping to include safety, environmental concerns, legal matters, maritime security and the efficiency of shipping. Based in the UK
 The IMO defines piracy as any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends DIRECTED on the high seas, in a place outside the jurisdiction of any state; against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board such ship or aircraft; against a ship, aircraft, persons or property
• Many attacks take place in ports and harbors OR when ships are underway in confined waters. Includes kidnapping and ransom of crew &vessel, hijacking, sale of cargo, ship given new identity.


Most acts cited in the annual IMB reports on maritime piracy are not the classic boarding and hijacking of a merchant vessel on the high seas. For example, nearly two-thirds of the attacks in 2003 occurred while the ships were stationary in port and are better classified as sea robbery

• Two recent cases of piracy in the SE region
• First a motor tanker was on a routine run with a cargo of palm oil in the Malacca Straits, bound for the port of Belawan-located on the northern coast of Indonesia. When men armed with automatic weapons swarmed aboard from a speedboat and imprisoned 13 crewmembers and demanded $50,000 ransom from the ship’s owners for the crew’s release. After a five week standoff, the pirates shot dead four crewmembers and the remaining nine jumped overboard to escape.
• In the second case, armed pirates in three fishing boats boarded a Japanese-flag ocean tug towing a large construction barge bound for Burma in the Straits of Malacca. They kidnapped the Japanese Master and two engineers. Later, the Royal Malaysian police patrol boats escorted the tug and towed the vessel to Penang. The crew was held for a week before its release and a ransom was allegedly paid by the owner of the tugboat for their release.
http://www.icc-ccs.org/prc/piracy_maps_2006.php
This chart highlights Piracy and Armed robbery reported by the IMB from Jan to Sep of 2006. Of note, the most significant number of cases has taken place in
Chittagong anchorage, Bangladesh (33) // and (40) Indonesia: Belawan, adjacent to Jakarta
…..READ ANALYSIS bullets……
• The Good news is this threat is declining. A positive outcome is that the Lloyds of London War Risk committee has decided that the Malacca Strait is no longer a "war zone." The "war zone" designation, with its inevitable effect on insurance rates was made in June 2005. The War Risk committee had decided the war risk rating was merited because of endemic piracy, the presence of Islamic terrorist cells and a separatist insurrection in Indonesia's Aceh province. Since then, however, littoral states Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore have mounted effective joint naval operations against pirates and other threats.

But operations remain expensive and the three governments are suggesting shipping companies pay a toll to cover the costs of keeping the strait safe, which is estimated at ~ 300 million US dollars a year to enhance safety. Initial shipping company opposition has dwindled as the realization has firmed that they are going to have to pay some form of insurance and it might as well be of the preventative variety.

Issues: Energy Resources

. Another source of dispute involves potential energy resources. Spratly Islands is home to a number of territorial disputes, both bilateral and multilateral. Sovereignty is contested for oil and gas resources. Estimates vary considerably, from low of 1-2 billion barrels to a high of 225 billion.
The islands are composed of apprx 170 bits of land of which only 36 can be called islands, because they are naturally above water at high tide. WHERE Six govts make claims to these islands – China, Taiwan, and Vietnam lay claim to virtually all the geographical features. The Philippines and Malaysia lay claim on the basis of proximity to the continental shelf principle***. This principle is based upon the CONVENTION ON THE CONTINENTAL SHELF. DONE AT GENEVA, ON 29 APRIL 1958 referring (a) to the seabed adjacent to the coast but outside the area of the territorial sea. If the coastal State does not explore the continental shelf or exploit its natural resources, no one may undertake these activities, or make a claim to the continental shelf, without the express consent of the coastal State. Brunei claims one island. All accept Brunei has sought to consolidate its claims by occupying geographical features. One major military clash has resulted – between China and Vietnam back in 1988 – where over 70 VN were killed.
• Another dispute exists over Ambalat as a result of overlapping exploration licenses of competing oil companies in Indonesia and Malaysia. located of the east coast of Borneo. Unlike the Spratlys though, the dispute is non-territorial in nature, and the parties are concerned not with sovereignty of land, but with overlapping claims within the EEZs in which they have specific sovereign rights.
• In the S Pacific there has been much political and legal debate over the allocation of exploitation rights to the area with Australia, Indonesia and East Timor all claiming rights to a proportion of the resources.
• In the south, with Australia, Indonesia and East Timor, each country’s claims could be argued under international law. This matter has been resolved by establishing the Joint Petroleum Development Area (JPDA) under the Timor Sea Treaty signed in 2002. The Treaty allocates 90 per cent of the revenue from the area to East Timor and 10 per cent to Australia. The resources in the JPDA amount to almost 12 trillion cubic feet of gas and 900 million barrels of oil. Oil is currently being processed and exported from the JPDA. The majority of the gas resources, are still in the development phase. These gas deposits will have a significant impact on the region’s petroleum industry. Australia stands to gain $4 million a year from Greater Sunrise and $2 billion in total revenue from Bayu Undan. Depending on how the area is further developed, downstream financial benefits to Australia could be as much as $25 billion, including the provision of up to 20,000 jobs in the Northern Territory. The resource sharing arrangements under the Timor Sea Treaty will underpin East Timor’s economic development for the foreseeable future and are therefore vital to this region.

Issues Disputed Waters

• Shifting to some of the key issues.
• First….. disputes over who owns what sections of the seas. W/ numerous islands and overlapping EEZs and territorial seas in the S E, many boundaries require three or more countries to agree.
• For example in Southeast Asia, of the nearly 60 maritime boundaries in the region, less than 20% have so far been fully agreed, with little progress being made on the outstanding ones.
• And w/o full agreement…. cooperative enforcement is certainly complicated.

Issues With Marine Resources
A main issue with Marine resources is the future sustainability of fisheries – obviously important to the livelihood and economic prosperity for many S-E countries and cultures. Unsustainable exploitation of fish resources has become a serious problem as countries compete against each other for economic growth. Issues of overfishing in territorial waters and EEZs has been compounded by the illegal fishing activites carried out by boats belonging to foreign countries, and flying the flag of another country.

One example of a major source of tension is between Thailand, Burma and Indonesia where there exist disputes over fishing permits, foreign exchange and restricted areas.
One example is disputes over the rights to exploit highly migratory fish stocks in intl waters – like the blue fin tuna. Japan, Australia, and New Zealand are embroiled in disputes over the Southern blue fin tuna. While Australia and NZ impose a restriction on the amount of tuna that can be caught annually to build up stock, Japan argues that its quota should be increased.
On impacting the environment, coastline and riverside deforestation has led to erosion and increase in sediment flowing into rivers and the seas, which has led to degradation of habitat. Is also being impacted by shipping pollution caused by ship ballasts water.


Challenges: Gaps
• Other issues equally important, but I would say are more challenging to overcome are the gaps in cooperation, capabilities and enforcement. Coastal states, which once were under Colonial domination jealously, guard their sovereignty and jurisdiction in the maritime zone. This has resulted in reluctance by many in the A-P region to authorize warships or govt ships of other States to patrol or exercise other police powers in their territorial seas. Thus, I would hazard to say any proposals for cooperative arrangements on maritime security are unlikely to be acceptable to some States in this region if they conflict with the sovereignty and jurisdiction of coastal states.
• Another point to make is that ASEAN is still a relatively loose regional organization compared to IOs in other regions – like the EU, particularly in the area of security. A-P has no region-wide and binding security arrangement equivalent to Organization for Security and Coop in Europe (OSCE) or any collective security pact similar to those that exist in NATO. Many believe this is due to the region’s great diversity and underlying mutual suspicions. Despite the many bilateral and regional cooperation initiatives, security coop is much more difficult to carry out. Notwithstanding, cooperation can be agreed upon on issues they do not impinge on existing territorial claims.
• Equally challenging security is that most maritime security and defense forces lack the capabilities and capacities to maintain timely and accurate maritime situational awareness
• Lack automatic tools to identify and prioritize relevant and actionable information to avoid information overload•
• Particularly, the inability to acquire, fuse and manage information sharing (technical, cultural) barriers limit the effectiveness of partner
• The end result is missed opportunities for interdicting terrorists, WMD proliferation, piracy, trafficking and smuggling
• I would also say there is a significant gap in ENFORCEMENT – Combined, these shortcomings impact enforcement. Although there are exists numerous conventions governing activities, enforcement is problematic Further, for most of this region, there are no clear guidelines on pursing suspect ships crossing into another territory.

Part III: Regional Initiatives and Mechanisms
So what measures and initiatives are being taken by countries and international organizations?
• By IOs, an ASEAN Work Program, adopted in 2002 includes agreements to eliminate piracy and promote info sharing about piracy. This program asks member states to disseminate laws, regulations, agreements, and conventions, and to cooperate with UN agencies and the IMB and IMO.
• Another IO initiative comes from the ASEAN Regional Forum OR ARF who recently (Jan 07) hosted the first ever ARF Maritime Security Shore Exercise which promoted interoperability and familiarity amongst the various agencies involved through a series of inter-agency discussions and table-top exercises. (ASEAN +Aus, Can, China, EU, India, Jpn, NKorea, SKorea, Mongolia, NZ, Pak, PNG, RU, US)ARF has Russia) most recent initiative took place in Singapore this past January, where Singapore Maritime security experts from the military, law enforcement, port and policy agencies of ARF member countries participated
• At the UN level – as explained in the discussion on Piracy threat, the IMO maintains a regulatory framework for maritime security.
• In the context of multilateral agreements, one ratified last fall is the Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia. This is the first multi-lateral government-to-government response of its kind that addresses the challenge of piracy and armed robbery in the context of 3 pillars: info sharing, capacity building and cooperative arrangements among ASEAN+6 countries. (Bangladesh, Korea, SriLanka, Burma, Japan, India) As part of the information exchange process, the ReCAAP includes the establishment of an information sharing centre in Singapore.
• Another agreement to address these threats is In March 1988 a conference was held in Rome in which the IMO assembly adopted the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, which extends the rights of maritime forces to pursue terrorists, pirates, and maritime criminal into foreign territorial waters and also provides for their extradition and prosecution. Its main purpose is to ensure that appropriate action is taken against persons committing unlawful acts against ships. These include the seizure of ships by force; acts of violence against persons on board ships; and the placing of devices on board a ship which are likely to destroy or damage it. (Interesting – 133 contracting states. Minus Laas, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Thailand Malaysia, Nepal Timor, Solomon Islands
• Of symposiums in the theater, the Western Pacific Naval Symposium brings together 18 member navies to promote mutual understanding among navies and increase cooperation by providing a forum leading to common understandings was created in 1988 and (Aus, Bru, Cam, China, Fr, Indon, Jap, Mal, NZ, PNG, PI, Rus, Sing, S Kor, Thai, Tonga and the U.S.) Administrator is PACOM. Aim is to discuss issues and generate a flow on info.

Mechanism
• Listed here are some of the mechanism exercised to mitigate threats:
• Proliferation Security Initiative OR PSI is one example of cooperation, providing authority to board sea vessels suspected of carrying illicit shipments of WMD destruction, their delivery systems, or related materials. Under this agreement, if a vessel registered in a partner country is suspected of carrying proliferation-related cargo, either one of the Parties can request of the other to confirm the nationality of the ship in question and, if needed, authorize the boarding, search, and possible detention of the vessel and its cargo. 70 countries support aims of PSI. 20 members – 6 in A-P Aus, Thai, Sing, Ru, Japan and U.S.
• The Intl Ships and Port Facility Security Code OR ISPS came into effect in 2004 as a comprehensive set of measures to enhance the security of ships and port facilities. It covers ships of over 500 gross tons on intl voyages, & port facilities serving these ships. It was initiated by the US Coast Guard under the direction of ADM James Loy, as part of the US government's response to the September 11th Terrorist Attacks. And mobile offshore drilling units AND requires that ships and ports carry out security assessments, plans, appoint security officers and maintain certain security equipment. As of Oct 2006 total number of declared ISPS port facilities amounted to 10,652 worldwide. (contracting govts to (SOLAS – Safety of Life at Sea Convention – important intl treaty for safety of merchant ships)
• Along the same lines the CSI program offers its participant countries the reciprocal opportunity to enhance their own incoming shipment security using intelligence and automated information and pre-screening those containers that pose a risk at the port of departure before they arrive at ports. The Container Security Initiative (CSI) was launched in 2002 by the U.S. Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP), an agency of the Department of Homeland Security. Its purpose was to increase security for container cargo.
• The last one I’ll mention is similar in concept to aircraft IFF tracking. The Automatic Identification Systems AIS is now mandated by the IMO for all vessels greater than 300 gross tons. Like aircraft IFF, this system identifies the vessel, owner, flag position, course and speed and is available to anyone who wants to subscribe to the service.
• Of note, Singapore has taken these mechanisms one step further in synchronizing this info thru what’s called a Vessel Traffic Management Information Systems (VTMIS)…which is simply an integration and synchronization enabling operators to manage vessel traffic, monitor the environment and support port and harbor resources.

• The final group of mechanisms worth citing are the multilateral training and operations ongoing aimed at increasing readiness of maritime forces operating in the region.
• Southeast Asia Cooperation against Terrorism, OR SEACAT exercise is a headquarters staff exercises involving scenario-based crisis-action planning and decision-making & fleet training exercise involving the movement and reactions of real-world forces such as boarding teams practicing their skills. Was started by the USN began in 2002 and has evolved into three phases. First - A command post exercise (CPX) Second phase is the FTX or in response to other real-world forces, finally the third phase is the Hotwash or exercise debrief, to discuss lessons learned to help develop planning guidance for next year's exercise.
• An example of multilateral surveillance operations take place in the Straits of Malacca under the umbrella of the Malacca Straits Security Initiative, which employs ~20 ships from Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia AND Eyes in the Sky which focuses on conducting maritime air patrols by littoral countries. encompasses both Operation MALSINDO or as listed on this slide - Malacca Straits Patrols
• Pacific Partnership 2007 was officially launched June 1 as USS Peleliu (LHA 5), a multimission amphibious ship, departed Pearl Harbor for Southeast Asia and Oceania. The four-month humanitarian mission brought together host nation medical personnel, partner nation military medical personnel and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to provide medical, dental, construction and other humanitarian-assistance programs ashore and afloat in the Philippines, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and the Marshall Islands.

• Finally US Pacific Fleet emphasizes regional security through an international cooperation of Maritime Domain Awareness. MDA simply understands all activities, events and trends within the maritime domain. The role of MDA is to identify the threats and maintain a complete situational awareness of the vessels that engage in intl commerce, fishing and transport – basically an air traffic control system for the maritime domain.
• Again, these are just a few examples of international cooperation to enhance transparency, share information and take action against threats in the maritime domain – which are all geared to strengthen maritime security in the Asia Pacific.
• IF TIME ALLOWS……..I close this session w/ one more initiative created by our friends in Malaysia in 2006 –Malaysia has launched a new coastguard to combat piracy in the Malacca Straits.


Common Challenges
Transnational in nature Ignore political boundaries, the agenda has moved from traditional concern such as piracy and armed robbery to non-traditional concern such as terrorist activities drug and weapons trafficking, smuggling of goods and people, illegal fishing and environmental degradation.
Maritime security threatens the economic growth and welfare of the ASEAN member countries and their people.
Countering these threats and challenges requires consistent cooperation between the states affected and the associated maritime agencies. With Spirit of ASEAN, supported ASEAN Security Communities

Possible area of cooperation
Possible area of cooperation among ASEAN militaries to manage threats: enhanced information exchange., interagency cooperative frameworks through bilateral / regional arrangement., implementation of international laws and standard of security measures such as ISPS code., strengthen capacity of national law enforcement.
Possible area of cooperation in maritime security are combat the illegal activities, such as piracy, hijacking, smuggling, illegal fishing, illegal logging, shifting border poles, and illegal border crossing

Operational Solutions: Coordinated Patrol among Navies, hot pursuit arrangement, developing standard operational procedures and inter-operability, exchanges in port security measures, the use of advanced technology, establishment of Maritime Electronic Highway (IMO and World Bank sponsored), establishment of Auto Track Information System (AIS) for ship DWT 300 GT, establishment of focal points, tactical training and exercises.

In summary –key takeaways to bear in mind. In particular, the first five checkmarks point to the importance in terms of economic security, territorial integrity, and human security. Further, I expect transnational threats in this domain, such as illicit trafficking, piracy, terrorism, and gaps in cooperation, capabilities and enforcement to endure. Finally, to address these ongoing challenges I expect a constant and perhaps increasing regional especially ASEAN commitment by both intl organizations and nations to address to cooperate and build the trust and confidence among the players in the region to address these gaps and strengthen security.
 Very dynamic maritime security scene
 Increasing reliance on seaborne trade
 Growth in naval forces to safeguard sea lanes
 Limited maritime boundaries, capacity, and effective cooperation arrangements
 Degradation of marine habitats
 Enduring transnational strategic threats
 Implementation challenges of management regimes/protocols continue
 Regional commitment to strengthen relationships and cooperation undermining sovereignty
 Need ASC SOP
____________________________________________________________________________
That’s all my presentation, Any Question.
Presentation at Track II Network of ASEAN defence and security institutions third meeting

APCSS HAWAII USA

Maritime security Challange: Indonesian Perspective

Session One Briefing On
Maritime Security Challenges: Indonesian Perspective[1]
By : Dr. A.Yani Antariksa, SE, SH, MM.

In this region, global trends and developments are ones of the influencing factors determining regional security dynamics. The globalize, hi-technology world order not only poses new security challenges, but also spawns a host of global transnational threat, which are increasingly maritime in nature. The emerging trend in the region is the shift of regional security issues, illustrated namely by the presence of conflicts pertaining territorial claims, maritime communication channels, and maritime trade routes. Non traditional security issues occurring in the global scale have also become major issues at the regional level. The interaction and dynamics of major countries such as the United States, China, Japan, Russia and European Union, will become an influential factor in the security map of Asia Pacific. On the domestic scale, Indonesia as a nation located in the middle of the globe, could not escape from global and regional developments. Political, economic, social and security dynamics in the region are among influential factors for social political and security developments in Indonesia. Domestic security issues which have surfaced in the recent decade cannot be separated from the contribution of external factors, directly or indirectly. Apart from external factors, there are internal factors which are potentially threats to national security. Such factors namely, ethnic heterogeneity in Indonesia, the economic crisis situation and political and social factors. The accumulation of external and internal factors manifests itself in varying forms of threats and disturbances to national security, which on a larger scale could pose threats to the regional stability.
Threat Prediction and Maritime Security Challenges.
Indonesia's geopolitical situation as an archipelago situated between the Asian and Australian continents and between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, means that the nation is heavily influenced by developments in strategic context. This may imply contradicting interests between Indonesia and other nations. As a result of the dynamic of the strategic context, at the global, regional and domestic scale, Indonesia in the future may face traditional and non traditional threats. Traditional security threats may manifest themselves in the form of invasion or aggression from other countries, although this is highly unlikely. The role of UN and the international world's reaction is assessed as being capable of preventing, or minimizing the use of the armed forces of a nation to invade other countries. External threats, which are more probable, may come from trans-national organized crimes committed by non state actors taking advantage of conducive domestic conditions.
Estimated future maritime security challenges faced by Indonesia range from transnational threats, including maritime terrorism, sea piracy /sea robbery, illegal migration, refugees/human trafficking, assistance during natural disasters, smuggling, illegal fishing, pollution and destruction of the ecosystem, have spawned a multitude of additional “out of area” operational roles for regional navies, and have dramatically increased the maritime security challenges of the South Asian region. Countering these threats and challenges requires consistent cooperation between the states affected and the associated maritime agencies.


Session Two
Possible Areas of Cooperation among ASEAN Militaries
In Maritime Security[2]
International Cooperation in defense field is an integral part of the Indonesia's overseas policy as one of the bridges to build mutual trust with other nations. The active involvement of Indonesia in ensuring stability and world peace has been shown by sending peace keeping troops to a number of countries in the world that are overwhelmed by conflicts. The involvement of the TNI in the United Nations missions started in 1957 by sending the Garuda Contingent I (KONGA-I) to Egypt with 559 troops. From that time, the TNI has actively been involved in international tasks under the flag of the United Nations, by carrying out police observation tasks, truce, demobilization and disarmament, security protection and safety as well as humanitarian assistance.
In an effort to take part in maintaining regional stability, defense cooperation will be prioritized on bilateral cooperation and multilateral with countries in South East Asia, and countries in the South West Pacific sub-regions. ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) and the ARF (ASEAN Regional Forum) defense cooperation forum and the South West Pacific Dialog Forum are a cooperative area among member countries that it is important to be developed in the future. Through the forums, regional cases will be settled by emphasizing the spirit of collectiveness, a balance of interest that is built based on the principle of equal rights, mutual respect and non-intervention. Bilateral cooperation in defense field as well as maritime security cooperation is directed towards building a feeling of mutual trust and to resolve defense cases encountered together. Urgent security cases, to be jointly handled, are to overcome transnational crimes and other border defense issues. Possible area of cooperation among ASEAN militaries in maritime security are combat the illegal activities, such as piracy, hijacking, smuggling, illegal fishing, illegal logging, shifting border poles, and illegal border crossing.
Others main Common Understanding:
Agreed Principles
- The importance of implementing UN Charter and recognized international principles and laws such as UNCLOS 1982, Respect for ASEAN spirit: respect for sovereignty promotion of dialogue and networking and enhanced interactions, adherence to ASEAN principle of “move forward at pace comfortable to all “peaceful resolution of conflict and confidence building, Information sharing among ARF member countries, Cooperation between ASEAN member countries and shipping as well as insurance industries.

Maritime Security Environment and Threats
- Transnational in nature Ignore political boundaries, the agenda has moved from traditional concern such as piracy and armed robbery to non-traditional concern such as terrorist activities drug and weapons trafficking, smuggling of goods and people, illegal fishing and environmental degradation, Maritime security threatens the economic growth and welfare of the ASEAN member countries and their people.

Managing Threats
- Enhanced information exchange, interagency cooperative frameworks through bilateral / regional arrangement, implementation of international laws and standard of security measures such as ISPS code, strengthen capacity of national law enforcement.

Operational Solutions
- Coordinated Patrol among Navies, hot pursuit arrangement, developing standard operational procedures and inter-operability, exchanges in port security measures, the use of advanced technology, establishment of Maritime Electronic Highway (IMO and World Bank sponsored), establishment of Auto Track Information System (AIS) for ship DWT 300 GT, establishment of focal points, tactical training and exercises.


Session Three
The Role ASEAN Militaries
In Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation[3]

Security at sea is complex, no single country that could handle maritime security alone, thus, they shared the few that cooperation should be done based on the international laws and conventions between and among countries, in order to manage security effectively. Besides piracy, human smuggling through Asia Pacific waters also increases. Australia, on the southern flank of South East Asia, is one of target countries of illegal immigrants. This means South East Asian, including Indonesian waters, becomes a sea lane to Australia. Human smuggling should not be regarded as a simple matter, on the contrary, it is very complicated because several countries are involved, and each may have different interests, especially in security, humanity, economy, and politics. Large scale illegal migration is often carried out by mafia organizations with international networks. Illegal migration has a negative impact on both the destination country and transit countries and often causes political and socio-economic problems and international tension. There have recently been cases of the smuggling of workers, babies, and women. Smuggling activities in South East Asian international waters have been widespread in the last decade; and include smuggling of weapons, ammunition and explosives. This illegal activity has political, economic, and security repercussions in the destination country. In particular weapon smuggling can create a serious problem, threatening the stability of the destination country. Piracy and smuggling described above are illegal actions which cause losses for both the countries in the region and the countries that use the waters. These illegal actions are organized carefully, and thus need international cooperation to overcome them.

Singapore
Defense cooperation between Indonesia and Singapore has long taken place through the formation of the cooperation committee body of the two countries. Defense cooperation Defending The Country Entering the 21 Century 63 with Singapore has developed with joint training between elements, such as between the Army (SAFKARINDOPURA), between the Navy (EAGLE-INDOPURA) and between Air Force (ELANG-INDOPURA) being conducted on a routine basis. In addition to training, cooperation with Singapore is also carried out through an agreement on Military Training Area (MTA) which can be used by the two countries. To perfect the process and procedure of the use of MTA of Rl-Singapore, in the future an evaluation of the agreement is needed. In encountering transnational crimes issues such as terrorism, piracies and hijacks, cooperation with Singapore is important. Thereby, it needs to be improved in the years to come.

Malaysia
Cooperation in defense field with Malaysia was initiated through a security arrangement in 1972, which later formed the Border Committee. The Border Committee is useful for handling defense issues in the border areas. Defense issues, among others, are piracy, hijacking and smuggling, illegal logging, border poles shifting, and border crossing cases. Elements of the TNI are positioned in the border area, in cooperation with Malaysia, in an effort to resolve and overcome issues of border security. The scope of the region that has to be secured and natural conditions which are very tough, make it quite difficult for security officials. Currently elements of the TNI that are positioned in the border areas are still in small task units. In the future, the force and capability of the TNI will be improved in stages in accordance with the need and situation. Integrated cooperation with elements from related government agencies in carrying out security in the border areas is very important and will be increased. So far cooperation in the border region has taken place through a mechanism under the commitment of the GBC and JIMC forum. It is expected that this forum will remain an effective place to resolve border cases. Defense cooperation in the form of military training such as KEKAR MALINDO, MALINDOJAYA, ELANG MALINDO, AMANMALINDO and DARSASA are very effective in improving defense of the two countries. Henceforth, the cooperation will also be increased in an effort to overcome urgent defense matters such as terrorism, piracy, hijackings at sea, smuggling and other transnational crimes.

Philippines
Indonesia enjoys long, strong, established and good relations with the Philippines especially by the fact of Indonesia's involvement in sending 64 defending The Country Entering the 21st Century military personnel as international observers on the Moro case. Up to now there has not been an agreement on the marine border of the two countries. The cooperation between the Republic of Indonesia and the Philippines in the border issue has been tied in through the JBC forum, within an agenda that is routinely carried out. In addition to JBC, there is a JCBC (Joint Commission for Bilateral Cooperation) forum that discusses cases that are connected with issues of joint defense. Among others, traditional border crossing, smuggling, piracies and hijacking in the maritime border and other cross state crimes. In countering the terrorist issue and other transnational crimes, defense cooperation with the Philippines are important should be developed in a more concrete form.

Thailand
Relations and defense cooperation with Thailand are long, established and good. With Thailand, there is a similarity of view, especially in responding to non-traditional defense issues in the South East Asia regions. So far Thailand has significantly helped Indonesia in overcoming transnational criminals who try to smuggle firearms to assist the Free Aceh Movement. Specifically, in handing issues of international terrorism and other transnational crimes, defense cooperation with Thailand is important and should be developed in a more operational form in future.

Other Members of ASEAN
International cooperation in defense field with other members of ASEAN is of no less importance. Cooperation has so far taken place in a bilateral mechanism and in future it is important to continue to create defense stability in the South East Asia region through ASEAN links.

Papua New Guinea (PNG)
PNG is a neighboring country in the East with a long land border with Indonesia. Bilateral relations with PNG have been quite good. The two countries have long agreed land and maritime borders. Defense issue comes from 0PM (Free Papua Organization) a separatist group that is abusing the PNG region. Frequently members of the OPM enter PNG to avoid being pursued by Indonesia's military force. In addition, the inhabitants who live in the vicinity of the borderline often conduct traditional cross border activities. Defending The Country Entering the 21 Century 65 in handling these defense issues, cooperation between the two countries is needed. The place for the Indonesia and PNG cooperation is the JBC (Joint Border Committee) which is still considered quite effective. Various joint agenda are routinely carried out to prevent and handle cases that arise. There is a continuing requirement for the JBC.

Timor Leste
In the middle of the Indonesia's region of West Timor is situated the Oekusi enclave, which is a unique and requires specific handling. The human and material traffic from Oekusi through Indonesian territory needs to be regulated in such a way that it poses little or no security threat. Relations with Timor Leste are complicate by sentiment over the independence of Timor Leste. On the longer land borders problems such as illegal trade and smuggling arise, as well as criminal disturbance and traditional border crossing. Militia issues come to the surface and have the potential to disrupt relations between the two countries. There are still a number of Timor Leste refugees in the West Timor region who also significantly influence the settlement of defense issues in the border area. The deployment of the TNI in the border region is expected to be able to maintain
Defense and to be a continuing requirement. Bilateral discussion with Timor Leste is being carried out to decide the regional borders between the two countries.



Australia
Australia is a neighboring country bordering with Indonesia, outside the South East Asia region. Defense cooperation between Indonesia and Australia is long standing; however it has had ups and downs as the result of the up and-down relations between the two countries. Defense cooperation between the two countries was at its lowest point in 1999 in connection with the position of Australia in settling the Timor Leste case. 66 Defending The Country Entering the 21st Century In cooperation in the defense field with Australia, Indonesia still refers to the principles of CBM that emphasize the spirit of collectiveness and interest balance and is built according to equality of rights, mutual respect, and not involvement in respective internal affairs. Future cooperation with Australia will be improved to overcome transnational crime issues such as terrorism and illegal immigrants, including the treatment of traditional fishing issues.

China
The normalization of diplomatic relations between Indonesia and China has brought progress in improving cooperation in various fields, including the defense field. China can be an alternative source of procurement for TNI equipment. Defense cooperation relation is currently at an early stage and it is important that this is continued.

United States
Defense Cooperation with the United States has taken place since 1950. Up to now the existing cooperation is through IMET (International Military Education and Training) or E-IMET (Expanded IMET). And so is cooperation in the form of military training. In 1999 the United States imposed a defense cooperation restriction, where IMET was frozen and the procurement of military equipment was restricted to non-lethal weapons military equipment. Outside the situation described above, defense cooperation between Indonesia and the United States is taking place in a limited scale. The cooperation, among others, is through joint maritime operation training. Bilateral relations in the defense field with the United States are important for both countries in overcoming global and regional defense issues. Efforts to restore relations have been made. In September 2001, a week after the 11th September 2001 event, President Megawati visited the United States, In a Joint Statement with President Bush it was agreed that a security dialog should be carried out between the two Departments of Defense. The first security dialog was carried out in Jakarta in April 2002 and henceforth it will be carried out annually. On 13th May 2002 the Minister of Defense of the Republic of Indonesia, H. Matori Abdul Djalil visited the United States, meeting with Minister of Defense of the United States Donald Rumsfeld and several members of the Congress and Senate. The visit was quite positive and has yielded progress in several areas, among others, the re-opening of the IMET program as of 2003. In 2008 Indonesia and USA become permanent friendly.

United Kingdom
Defense cooperation with the United Kingdom is long established. In the past the cooperation greatly involved a number of purchases of primary equipment for TNI. Currently and in the years to come, defense cooperation will be based on strategic discussions on the defense sector through information exchange and comparative study.



Other (EU) European Union Countries
The cooperation relation in the defense field between Indonesia and member countries of EU Europe includes education and purchase of military equipment by Indonesia. Currently Indonesia is studying various possibilities to improve the defense field with several member countries of Unit Europe.

Russia
Up to now there has not been a concrete relationship in the defense field, and no formal military links. Existing cooperation is limited to the procurement of several types of arms. It is hoped that cooperation will continue to improve and firmer links develop.


Multilateral Cooperation
The agreement reached between the Malaysian, Indonesian and Singaporean navies on the conduct of joint anti-piracy patrols in the Malacca Straits (MALSINDO) is an example of progress in increasing maritime cooperation. It is supported by join Air Patrol “Eye in the Sky” between Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore Air Force. More over, the cooperation expands with the involvement of Thailand namely (Malaysia Indonesia Thailand Singapore Coordinated Patrol at Malacca Strait MITS). The way ahead need the establishment of joint maritime centers (JMCs) at important ports and near ocean choke points would prove to be a milestone towards this type of maritime cooperation. The sea may bring together like-minded countries that in turn may influence the region's strategic perceptions.


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[1] Paper for Network of ASEAN defense and Security Institutes Meeting (NADI), 27-29July 2009. Organized by S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS), Singapore.
[2] RSIS SINGAPORE 2009
[3] RSIS Role of ASEAN Military